Research and development in criminal law and criminology

Research and development in criminal law and criminology

Criminal and Non-Criminal Preventive Measures to Control the Spread of Sexually Transmitted Viruses (With an Emphasis on HPV)

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Salar Sadeghi 1
Mohammad Shooshtari saani 2
Taha Eslami 3
1 Assistant Professor of Criminal Law and Criminology, Roshdiyeh Institute of Higher Education, Tabriz, Iran.
2 MA in Criminal Law and Criminology, Farabi College, University of Tehran, Qom, Iran.
3 MA in Criminal Law and Criminology, Islamic Azad University of Tabriz.
10.22034/jclc.2025.2061775.1193
Abstract
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) represent one of the most pressing modern threats to public health. Among these, the Human Papillomavirus (HPV) is globally prevalent, distinguished by its association with various malignancies, its highly contagious nature, and the difficulty of detecting asymptomatic carriers. These characteristics necessitate the design and implementation of comprehensive, efficient, and nationally coordinated preventive strategies. Adopting a descriptive-analytical methodology, this study addresses the social and legal challenges posed by the spread of STIs—focusing on HPV—and evaluates the capacity of both criminal and non-criminal preventive measures to control their proliferation within Iranian society. Findings indicate that the Iranian legal system suffers from significant legislative and executive lacunae regarding these viruses. Specifically, it lacks explicit criminalization of high-risk behaviors related to the intentional transmission of STIs, as well as clear policies and programs to counter their spread; a deficiency that severely undermines the effectiveness of control efforts. Conversely, comparative international experiences suggest that a combination of proportionate criminal sanctions, comprehensive sexual health education, public vaccination programs, and transparent media communication can be effective. Consequently, it is essential to formulate a multidimensional, integrated, and justice-oriented criminal policy that prioritizes awareness, empathy, and equal access to healthcare alongside law and order. A dual approach is proposed: Legal Prevention, achieved through transparent and proportionate criminalization aligned with the principles of criminal law; and Social Prevention, fostered through science-based education, public awareness campaigns, strategic media engagement, and nationwide vaccination programs. By drawing on the experiences of advanced legal systems and revising existing statutes, Iran’s criminal justice system can establish a suitable framework for coherent preventive strategies. The success of such policies hinges upon effective intersectoral cooperation among the health, education, and criminal justice systems.
Keywords
Sexually Transmitted Viruses
HPV
Prevention
Disease Control
Vaccination
Sexual Education
Law
Subjects
1.      Bashford, A. & Strange, C. (2004). Public Pedagogy: Sex Education and Mass Communication in the Mid–Twentieth Century. Journal of the History of Sexuality, 13(1), 71–99.
2.      Binswanger, I. A., Mueller, S., Clark, C. B., & Cropsey, K. L. (2011). Risk factors for cervical cancer in criminal justice settings. Journal of Women's Health, 20(12), 1839–1845. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2011.2864
3.      Bosch FX, Lorincz A, Muñoz N, Meijer CJ, Shah KV. The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. J Clin Pathol. 2002; 55(4):244-265.
4.      Clarke, R. V. (1983). Situational crime prevention: Its theoretical basis and practical scope. In Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research, Vol. 4, edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris, pp. 225–256. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
5.      Fortenberry JD. The effects of stigma on STD-risk behavior among adolescents: A theoretical model. J Adolesc Health. 2004; 35(6):s7-s13.
6.      Gollust, S. E., Attanasio, L., Dempsey, A., Benson, A. M., & Fowler, E. F. (2013). Political and news media factors shaping public awareness of the HPV vaccine. Women's Health Issues, 23(3), e143–e151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.whi.2013.02.001
7.      Grandahl, M., Larsson, M., Tydén, T., & Stenhammar, C. (2017). School nurses’ attitudes towards and experiences of the Swedish school-based HPV vaccination programme – A repeated cross-sectional study. PLOS ONE, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0175883
8.      Guillaume, D., Waheed, D. N., Schlieff, M., et al. (2022). Key decision-making factors for human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine program introduction in low-and-middle-income-countries: Global and national stakeholder perspectives. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 18(7), e2150454. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2022.2150454
9.      Hakim, R. U., Amin, T., & Islam, S. M. B. U. (2025). Advances and challenges in cervical cancer: From molecular mechanisms and global epidemiology to innovative therapies and prevention strategies. Cancer Control, 32, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/10732748251336415
10.  Hegheș, N.-E. (2020). Some Considerations Regarding the Crime of Thwarting Disease Control. In RAIS Conference Proceedings, June 1-2, 2020, Washington DC, USA, pp. 90–98. Retrieved from https://ssrn.com/abstract=3794869
11.  Izadi, S., & Shakerian, S. (2021). Performance Indicators of Cervical Cancer Screening Program Based on The Guidelines of Iran Ministry of Health and Medical Education. International Journal of Cancer Management, 14(2), e102030. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijcm.102030
12.  Leung, T. F., Liu, A. P., Lim, F. S., Thollot, F., Oh, H. M. L., Lee, B. W., et al. (2018). Comparative immunogenicity and safety of human papillomavirus (HPV)-16/18 AS04-adjuvanted vaccine and 4vHPV vaccine administered according to two- or three-dose schedules in girls aged 9–14 years: Results to month 36 from a randomized trial. Vaccine, 36(1), 98–106
13.  Marlow LAV, Forster AS, Wardle J, Waller J. Mothers’ and adolescent daughters’ beliefs about risk factors for cervical cancer: a qualitative study. Br J Health Psychol. 2009; 14(1):127–140.
14.  McBride, K. R., & Singh, S. (2018). Predictors of adults’ knowledge and awareness of HPV, HPV-associated cancers, and the HPV vaccine: Implications for health education. Health Education & Behavior, 45(1), 68–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198117709318
15.  Ntanasis-Stathopoulos I, Kyriazoglou A, Liontos M, Dimopoulos MA, Gavriatopoulou M. (2020). Current trends in the management and prevention of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. JBUON, 25(3):1281–1285.
16.  Patel, P. R., & Berenson, A. B. (2014). The internet’s role in HPV vaccine education. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 10(5), 1166–1170. https://doi.org/10.4161/hv.27967.
17.  Rashid A, Mohamed M. Implementation of a school-based HPV vaccination program in Malaysia: A successful strategy for combating cervical cancer. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2013;14(5):2531–5.
18.  Reiter, P. L., Stubbs, B., Panozzo, C. A., Whitesell, D., Brewer, N. T., & Smith, J. S. (2011). HPV and HPV vaccine education intervention: Effects on parents, healthcare staff, and school staff. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 20(11), 2354–2361.
https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-11-0562
19.  Rou, K., Sullivan, S. G., Liu, P., & Wu, Z. (2010). Scaling up prevention programmes to reduce the sexual transmission of HIV in China. International Journal of Epidemiology, 39(Suppl 2), ii38–ii46. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyq211
20.  Scheurer, M.E., Tortolero-Luna, G., & Adler-Storthz, K. (2005). Human papillomavirus infection: biology, epidemiology, and prevention. International Journal of Gynecological Cancer, 15(5), 727-746.
21.  Schneider, R. H., & Kitchen, T. (2002). Planning for crime prevention: A transatlantic perspective. London: Routledge.
22.  Shariati, A., & Guerette, R. T. (2017). Situational crime prevention. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and Justice: A Review of Research (Vol. 46, Chapter 22, pp. 1–16). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311251189
23.  Sherman, L. W., Gottfredson, D. C., MacKenzie, D. L., Eck, J. E., Reuter, P., & Bushway, S. D. (1997). Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s promising. Report to the United States Congress. National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. University of Maryland, Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice.
24.  Soi, C., Gimbel, S., Chilundo, B., Muchanga, V., Matsinhe, M., Weiss, J. & Sherr, K. (2020). Global health systems partnerships: a mixed methods analysis of Mozambique’s HPV vaccine delivery network actors. BMC Public Health, 20, 862. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08958-1.
25.  Utomo ID, Reimondos A, McDonald P, et al. Adolescent reproductive health in Indonesia: Controversies and challenges. Sex Health. 2011;8(2):169–76.
26.  Wang X, Du T, Shi X, Wu K. (2021). Awareness and knowledge about human papilloma virus infection among students at secondary occupational health school in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 6321. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126321
27.  Xu, M. A., Choi, J., Capasso, A., & DiClemente, R. J. (2024). Improving HPV vaccination uptake among adolescents in low resource settings: Sociocultural and socioeconomic barriers and facilitators. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 15, 73–82. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S394119
28.  Abouzari, M. (2025). Dealing with Crime in the Age of Artificial Intelligence: Prediction as Prevention. (e720961). Research and development in criminal law and criminology, 1(2). doi: 10.22034/jclc.2025.720961 (In Persian)
29.  Javanbakht, M. and Sheikholilami, A. (2024). Experience-Based Approaches in the Criminal Justice System: A Solution to Enhance the Effectiveness of Criminal Policy. Research and development in criminal law and criminology, 1(1), 7-35. doi: 10.22034/jclc.2024.718657 (In Persian)
30.  Moazzami, Sh. (2007). Criminological Prevention. Majd Legal Research, Analytical and Educational Quarterly, 1(1). (In Persian)
31.  Mohammadi Jorkouyeh, A. (2020). Liability Arising from the Transmission of Infectious Diseases and Viruses. Islamic Law Journal, 17(64), 205–226. (In Persian)
32.  Mohammiyan, H., & Nateghi, M.R. (2022). Human Papillomavirus (HPV) and Its Vaccines: A Review Article. Sarem Medical Research Journal, 7(4), 231–241. (In Persian)
33.  Riasi, E., & Shabani, A.H. (2023). An Examination of Crime Prevention Methods. The 14th International Conference on Management and Humanities Research in Iran, pp. 1–10. (In Persian)
Research and development in criminal law and criminology
Volume 2, Issue 4 - Serial Number 4
March 2026
Pages 348-389